KC Petty

This is the second in a series of Tech Tips on lead-based paint. This Tech Tip describes the methods used to determine if lead exists in a paint.

Lead-based paint is defined as any paint, varnish, stain, or other applied coating that has at least 1 milligram of lead per square centimeter (mg/cm2) or 0.5% by dry weight (5,000 micrograms per gram dry weight, or 5,000 parts per million).

Testing Methods

There are three methods of determining if paint has lead in it:

• Having a certified laboratory analyze a paint chip sample
• Hiring a certified contractor to use an x-ray fluorescence (XRF) instrument to measure the amount of lead on a painted surface
• Using a chemical test kit or using the swab method.

An Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) report, A Field Test of Lead-Based Paint Testing Technologies: Summary Report (EPA 747-R-95-002a), recommends only the laboratory analysis and XRF methods. The report concluded that chemical test kits cannot determine the extent of lead-based paint on a surface and users cannot be confident that test kits will discriminate accurately between lead-based paint and other paint.

Paint Chip Lab Analysis.

The paint chip lab analysis method is simple. Paint samples are taken from a painted surface. The samples are sent to a lab. The lab tests paint samples for lead by atomic absorption spectrophotometry (AAS) or inductively coupled plasma (ICP). The tests show how much lead is in the paint. The lab reports the results.

The Department of Housing and Urban Development (HUD) recommends that paint chip samples be taken from a 4-square-inch area of paint. The testing laboratory may have different requirements. The 4-square-inch sample guarantees that enough paint will be collected for labora-tory analysis. The 4-square-inch area may be of any shape (a 2- by 2-inch square or a 1- by 4-inch rectangle, for example). Areas from which paint chip samples are collected should be repaired to prevent exposure in the event the paint contains lead. Also, take representative samples of the paint from several areas. Record the location of each sample.

All layers of paint must be removed, since the lower layers are more likely to contain lead. Include as little as possible of the underlying material (wood, plaster, metal, or brick) in the sample. The test results are reported in percent of lead by sample weight. Adding substrate material in the sample would give erroneous results.

All laboratories analyzing lead paint must participate in the EPA's National Lead Laboratory Accreditation Program and be accredited by an organization recognized by the EPA. For more information, contact the National Lead Information Center Clearinghouse (1-800-424-LEAD) and ask for the most current list of EPA-recognized laboratories. Costs range from $12 to $25 per paint chip sample. The labs will give you complete instructions on taking paint samples and will give you shipping containers. Local and regional environmental labs may be available for lead testing. Mailing samples out-of-state is also a reasonable approach and may yield lower lab costs and faster results.

Advantages--Paint chip analysis is considered the most accurate method for measuring lead in paint as long as paint chip samples include all layers of paint and do not include substrate material. It is also the cheapest method if you are testing only a few paints.

Disadvantages--It can take for several days to several weeks to get the results, depending on the lab. The surface must be disturbed and repaired.

Results--Paint chip analysis measures the amount of lead in the paint by weight. The weight of lead in the sample is compared to the weight of the entire sample, and is reported as a percentage. If the sample has 0.5% lead or higher (5,000 parts per million), HUD considers this to be a lead paint. Lead levels may also be reported as mg/cm2 as long as the surface area of the paint removed was measured.

X-Ray Fluorescence.

Figure 1--X-ray flourescence instruments use radiation to measure the amount of lead on a painted surface.

X-ray fluorescence (XRF) instruments measure the amount of lead on a painted surface by exposing the surface to high-energy radiation (gamma rays in this case). The radiation causes lead to emit x-rays at a characteristic frequency. The intensity of the rays is measured by the instrument's detector and converted to a number that represents the amount of lead per unit area (usually in milligrams per square centimeter). Operators of XRF machines require special training to prevent radiation exposure.

These instruments (Figure 1) are very expensive, ranging in price from $10,000 to $15,000. Operators must be trained and certified. In most cases, a certified contractor can be hired for a few hundred dollars an hour. Although the cost may appear high, a contractor using these instruments can inspect many surfaces in a short period of time. Call the National Lead Information Center Clearinghouse (1-800-424-LEAD) to locate certified XRF operators in your area.

Advantages--The XRF instrument can tell immediately if the paint has lead in it and how much lead is present. Testing does not damage the painted surface. It is the best method when many surfaces or buildings are being tested.

Disadvantages--XRF measurements have a larger margin of error than laboratory analysis of paint chips. XRF instruments should not be used to test highly curved or intricate surfaces because of safety concerns, poor reliability of the results, and the inability to determine the exact surface area. Laboratory analysis of paint chip samples is recommended when irregular surfaces are being examined or when an inconclusive measurement is taken. An inconclusive measurement is a reading within the tolerance zone of the XRF machine around the established lead limit of 1.0 milligram of lead per square centimeter of a painted surface. For example, if an XRF instrument had a tolerance zone of +/- 0.2 mg/cm2, the inconclusive range would be between 0.8 mg/cm2 and 1.2 mg/cm2. A reading of 0.9 mg/cm2 would require that a paint chip sample be analyzed to verify the results.

Results--XRF readings tell how much lead is in the tested surface area. Results are reported in milligrams per square centimeter. If the reading is greater than 1 milligram per square centimeter (1.0 mg/cm2), then the surface is considered a lead surface. Usually more than one XRF reading is taken for a surface. The average of those readings is the result.

Chemical Test Kits.

Figure 2--Swab testing kits can detect lead.

Chemical test kits detect lead by a chemical reaction that causes a color change if lead is present in concentrations of at least 0.5% lead by weight. Chemical test kits are inexpensive and easy to use. They are available from local hardware stores or distributors. Several types of test kits are available. One type uses a sodium sulfide or sodium rhodizonate solution that is applied to a notched surface or a paint chip. Lead is indicated if the solution turns the appropriate color. Another type uses a swab (Figure 2) that is rubbed onto a painted surface. Lead is present if the swab turns the appropriate color.

Chemical test kits are not recommended by the EPA because of the possibility of false readings and because the tests do not tell how much lead is present in the paint. Sometimes the color change is difficult to interpret--especially if dark colors are being tested.

Advantages--The chemical spot testing method is quick, easy, and inexpensive. Test kits can be purchased directly from the manufacturer, distributor, or hardware store. Testing can be done at your convenience and you get the results right away.

Disadvantages--The chemical test does not tell you how much lead is present. Sometimes the test indicates lead is present when it is not (a false positive) and other times indicates lead is not present when it is (a false negative). The chemical tests only test the exposed layers, not the underlying layers that may be more likely to contain lead.

Results--Lead is present if the chemical test turns a specific color, usually red or brown.

Atlanta Inspection can perform lead testing by an accredited EPA Lab. Don't be fool by fasle positive self testing. Affordable rates. Insurance testing, Hud, Section 8, before remodeling a home built in 1978 or older.

It's usually considered an advantage to have a tight home; limiting air movement through the building envelope means you don't lose the air you've paid to heat, right?But what about all those sweaty, smelly bodies, human and dog, especially wet dog? Easy answer! Just take a shower/put him out ‘til he's dry,
Jeez, some people! But wait... people, showers, dish and clothes washers and cooking put moisture into the air and a number of activities put odors into the air. This means for the home to have clean, comfortable air, stale air must be ventilated to the outside and be replaced with clean air.

There are different methods used to recover the heat from the stale home air before it's ventilated to the outside. One way is with a Heat Recovery Ventilator (HRV).

Wherever did they get that name? HRV's work by passing outgoing warm air past incoming cold air. A good portion of the heat is transferred to the incoming cold air,which means you heat less air and save more money.

Inadequate number of air exchanges per hour can result in...Excessive humidity -unpleasant odors

Increase in mold spore concentrations Control of moisture around the home increases efficiency and comfort. Consistent moisture levels are more easily maintained inside the conditioned space when surrounding areas are dry.

Crawl spaces may be susceptible to bulk moisture in part because there are no waterproofing requirements for "uninhabitable" under-floor areas. Crawl vents allow airborne moisture air contact with framing,pipes and ducts.

Basements require deeper excavation than crawl spaces. Their floors are "closer" to seasonal high water tables and are subject to higher soil and moisture loads. Measures to reduce bulk moisture around the perimeter of the home include:

1) Maintain roof drainage: Keep gutters clean and properly pitched, pipe downspouts away from foundation walls.

2) Create a positive slope away from foundation walls. Install drains, swales, or retaining walls, add soil where backfill has settled. Fill voids under walks, stoops and patios. If bulk moisture (visible signe of water) is controlled airborne moisture can be reduced by closing crawl or basement vents.

DECKS: life expectancy of a deck is 10 to 15 years. Since deck building started about 30 years ago, there are many existing decks that are past their useful life. Deck maintenance is often overlooked as well. Decks are exposed to the elements, which can cause damage. It's important that decks are properly inspected and maintained on a routine basis Connectors and fasteners for deck construction that may meet the requirements of the 2006 International Building Code® and the 2006 International Residential Code.

Section 1604.8.3
Deck Code Requirements
Where supported by attachment to an exterior wall, decks shall be positively anchored to the primary structure and designed for both vertical and lateral loads as applicable. Such attachment shall not be accomplished by the useof toenails or nails subject to withdrawal. -

IRC 2006 Section R502.2.2 / IBC 2006. Correct ledger attachment is crucial when building a deck that is attached to another structure. One of the most common causes for deck failure are ledgers that pull away from the primary structure, resulting in complete collapse.The two most common ways to correctly attach a ledger to a structure are lag screws or through-bolts through the ledger and into the rim joist of the supporting structure. The installation of through-bolts requires access to the back side of the rim joist which, in some cases, is not possible without significant removal of drywall within the structure Ledger may not be installed over siding or stucco. It must be fastened directly to the rim joist or stud or through sheathing into an appropriate framing member.

1. Screws must be installed into a stud or rim board with sufficient thickness.

2. Screws can be installed over sheathing provided it is structural sheathing (OSB orplywood).

3. Rim board must be at least 1½" thick or a reduction to the catalog loads is required.

4. When installed into a stud a minimum edge distance of 3/8" must be maintained.

5. Minimum of 3" long screws must be used (plus the thickness of any structural sheathing that remains in place).

6. Ledger may not be installed over siding or stucco, it must be fastened directly to the rim joist, stud, or sheathing.

FOOTINGS ? The building codes include specific requirements regarding footing size that are dependent upon factors such as the dead and live loads the deck is designed to resist as well as soil conditions. Footing should be designed per IRC 2006, Section R403 or IBC2006, Section 1805 Minimum Footing Depths By Code ? Footings shall be at least 12" below the undisturbed ground surface. IRC 2006, Section R403.1.4 / IBC 2006, Section 1805.2

Footings shall be designed so that the allowable bearing capacity of the soil is not exceeded. The minimum width of footings shall be 12 inches. IRC 2006, Section R403.1.1 / IBC 2006, Section 1805.4.1

In order for posts to properly resist various types of loads they must rest on, and be anchored to, concrete footings. Patios and pre-cast concrete piers do not qualify as proper footings for deck construction.
Note: In order to achieve published load values, footings must provide sufficient concrete cover of the embedded - place post and column bases. In some cases a footing larger than theminimum required by the building codes will be necessary to meet theseLoad Resistance ?

Columns shall be restrained to prevent lateral displacement at the bottom end. Wood columns shall not be less in nominal size than 4" x 4" -

IRC 2006,
Section R407.3 ?
Column and post-end connections shall be fastened to resist lateral and net induced uplift forces - IBC 2006, Section 2304.9.7

More decks collapse in the summer than in the rest of the year combined.

Almost every deck collapse occurred while the decks were occupied or under a heavy load.

There is no correlation between deck failure and whether the deck was built with or without a building permit.

There is no correlation between deck failure and whether the deck was built by a homeowner or a professional contractor.

There is a slight correlation between deck failure and the age of the deck.

About 90% of deck collapses occurred as a result of the separation of the house and the deck ledger board, allowing the deck to swing away from the house. It is very rare for deck floor joists to break mid-span.

Many more injuries are the result of rail failure, rather than complete deck collapse.

Deck stairs are notorious for lacking graspable handrails.

Many do-it-yourself homeowners, and even contractors, don't believe that rail infill spacing codes apply to decks.

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1. Improperly compacted backfill and fill present around the foundation

All backfill and fill should be placed in 6″ to 8″ layers and tamped for proper compaction. This could allow items like the driveway, sidewalk and front porch steps to settle. (1995 CABO 1 & 2 Family Dwelling Code, Section 406.3.4)

2. Grading does not slope away from the foundation.

Lots should be graded to drain surface water away from foundation walls. The grade away from foundation walls shall fall a minimum of 6″ within the first 10 feet. (1995 CABO 1 & 2 Family Dwelling Code, Sections 401.3 & 406.3.5)

3. Grading might hold ground water.

The code requires all drainage to be diverted away from the yard. Surface drainage shall be diverted to a storm sewer conveyance or other point of collection. (1995 CABO 1 & 2 Family Dwelling Code, Section 401.3)

4. Foundations with improperly compacted fill.

Could probe under the footings. Fills which support footings and foundations shall be designed, installed and tested in accordance with accepted engineering practices. (1995 CABO 1 & 2 Family Dwelling Code, Section 401.2)

5. No vapor barrier present for a concrete slab.

This could allow water or moisture problems in the basement. A vapor barrier is required under all interior slabs except garages. (1995 CABO 1 & 2 Family Dwelling Code, Section 505.2.3)

6. Improper wall bracing for a 1 or 2 story structure.

The corner exterior walls are missing proper bracing. Exterior walls shall be braced at each corner and at least every 25 feet with approved structural sheathing or 1×4 let-in braces or approved metal straps diagonally tied from the bottom plate to the top plate. (1995 CABO 1 & 2 Family Dwelling Code, Table 602.9)

7. Improper wall bracing for a 3 story structure.

The corner exterior walls are missing proper bracing. All exterior corner walls shall be braced at each corner and at least every 25 feet with a minimum of 48″ of approved structural sheathing. (1995 CABO 1 & 2 Family Dwelling Code, Table 602.9)

8. Exterior windows and doors do not have properly installed flashing and weep holes at the brick.

Flashing is required above all doors and windows installed in brick and prevents water from soaking behind the brick running into the structure. Without weep holes to drain the water to the outside, flashing serves no purpose. Flashing and weepholes are required at all brick shelf angles over all doors and windows. (1995 CABO 1 & 2 Family Dwelling Code, Sections 703.7.4 & 703.8)

9. Exterior wood not properly protected.

Some of the exterior wood has open joints which will allow moisture to enter and will cause deterioration. Some of the paint is peeling off the wood trim. The trim may not be properly primed to bond the paint to the wood. Proper caulking and painting are needed. All exterior walls shall be covered with approved materials designed and installed to provide a barrier against the weather. (1995 CABO 1 & 2 Family Dwelling Code, Section 703.1)

10. Exterior wood siding trim not properly caulked or sealed at the brick or concrete foundation walls to prevent water and moisture from damaging the wood.

Water will run behind the wood and cause deterioration. (1995 CABO 1 & 2 Family Dwelling Code, Section 703.1)

11. Some of the exterior cement siding has recessed nails.

Recessed nails loose their holding strength in fiber cement siding. All manufacturers require the nails to be flush and not recessed. The recessed nails should be caulked and another flush nail installed next to it. (1995 CABO 1 & 2 Family Dwelling Code, Section 108.1)

12. Exterior openings in the structure are not sealed.

This will allow air leaks into the structure. All exterior joints in the building envelope, that are sources of air leaks, shall be caulked, gasketed, weather-stripped or otherwise sealed in an approved manner. (1995 CABO Model Energy Code 502.3 & 602.3)

13. Chimney height is not tall enough.

This could be a potential fire hazard. All chimneys shall extend 2' higher than any portion of roof within 10' and at least 3' higher than the roof penetration. (1995 CABO 1 & 2 Family Dwelling Code, Section 1004.1)

14. Roof shingles have toe board nail holes present.

Toe boards are walk boards the roofers use. Any holes in the shingles could turn into a roof leak. All shingles with holes should be replaced or sealed with a sealant that will last as long as the shingles. Roof shingles shall provide a barrier against the weather to protect its supporting elements and structure beneath. (1995 CABO 1 & 2 Family Dwelling Code, Section 901.2)

15. Roof shingles are missing roofing felt at the sheathing along the eaves.

This protects the roof sheathing. Slopes of 4 in 12 or greater, one layer of felt is required over all of the roof decking. (1995 CABO 1 & 2 Family Dwelling Code, Section 902.2)

16. Step flashing is missing at sloped vertical walls.

Some of the roof flashing at the vertical walls is continuous flashing. Flashing prevents water from entering at the intersection of the wall and the roof. Continuous flashing was used successfully for many years. However, step flashing is a far superior method of flashing and is required for all roofing. Flashing against a vertical sidewall shall be the step-flashing method. (1995 CABO 1 & 2 Family Dwelling Code, Section 903.6)

17. Deck footings are smaller than the minimum allowable size of 12″ x 12″.

See Figure 403.1a, note #5 and Table 502.3.3b. Footings shall comply with Section 403. (1995 CABO 1 & 2 Family Dwelling Code, Section 325.5)

18. Deck footings do not extend 12″ below grade.

All footings must be below the frost line. In no case shall exterior footings be less than 12 inches below grade. (1995 CABO 1 & 2 Family Dwelling Code, Figure 403.1a, note #1.)

19. Deck stair handrail is not the correct size.

Handrails that are 2×4 or larger are too large to be used for handrails since they cannot be gripped. Handrails shall have either a circular cross section with a diameter of 1 1/4″ to 2″, or a noncircular cross section with a perimeter dimension of at least 4″ but not more than 6 1/4″ and a largest cross section dimension not exceeding 2 3/4″. Edges shall have a minimum radius of 1/8″. (1995 CABO 1 & 2 Family Dwelling Code, Section 315.2)

20. Exterior deck is missing properly installed flashing.

Flashing prevents water from entering behind the deck and into the structure. Flashing is required where decks attach to a wall or floor assembly of wood frame construction. Exterior balconies, decks and porches shall be flashed in accordance with Section 703.8. (1995 CABO 1 & 2 Family Dwelling Code, Section 325.2.1)

21. Some of the roof framing has ridge beams that are too small and do not extend to the bottom of the rafters.

The ridge must extend down to the bottom of the rafters to properly support the rafters. The ridge shall not be less in depth than the cut end of the rafters. (1995 CABO 1 & 2 Family Dwelling Code, Section 802.3)

22. Roof purlin supports, supporting the rafters, are double 2×4s which are not the proper size.

The purlins should be single 2×6s turned perpendicular to the rafters which are stronger and less expensive than flat double 2×4s. Purlins shall be sized no less than the size of the rafters they support. (1995 CABO 1 & 2 Family Dwelling Code, Section 802.4.1)

23. Some of the rafter purlins support post exceed 48 inches apart.

Additional support post are required to properly support the purlins. All rafter purlins must be braced every 48 inches to a load bearing wall or support. (1995 CABO 1 & 2 Family Dwelling Code, Section 802.4.1)

24. Some of the rafter purlins are spliced between the support post.

Support members are not allowed to be spliced without additional support installed. All purlins should be spliced directly above a support post. Purlins must be continuous between braces (1995 CABO 1 & 2 Family Dwelling Code, Figure 802.4.1)

25. Roof framing support members have "V" joint or bird mouth splices that are not properly reinforced or supported by a support post to a load bearing wall below.

All load bearing beams must be supported at any splice. Roof framing shall be capable of supporting all loads imposed and shall transmit the resulting loads to its supporting structural elements. (1995 CABO 1 & 2 Family Dwelling Code, Section 801.2)

26. Attic is missing flooring from the end of the attic stairs to the furnace.

This makes it dangerous to climb over the stairs to access the flooring at the furnace. All attics must have an unobstructed, floored passageway 22″ wide x 30″ high to the furnace. (1995 CABO 1 & 2 Family Dwelling Code, Section 1401.5) (2000 Standard Mechanical Code 306.3)

27. Attic insulation certification card is missing.

This is required to verify the attic has the proper amount of insulation. The insulation installer shall provide a signed and dated certification for the insulation installed, listing the type of insulation, the manufacturer and the R-value. (1995 CABO Model Energy Code Sect. 102.1.2)

28. Attic insulation thickness markers are missing.

One thickness marker is required every 300 s.f. of floor area. The thickness of roof/ceiling blown insulation shall be identified by thickness markers. (1995 CABO Model Energy Code Sect. 102.1.3)

29. Attic insulation is not deep enough.

Sometimes the insulation settles and is not deep enough. The insulation installer certifies the minimum thickness of the insulation". (1995 CABO Model Energy Code Sect. 102.1.2)

30. Attic is missing firestopping at an open chase.

A chase is an opening in the attic floor that could allow a fire, from the story below, to enter the attic. All openings in the attic floor need sealing with drywall. Firestopping is required at each floor, at the attic floor and at all roof penetrations. (1995 CABO 1 & 2 Family Dwelling Code, Section 602.7)

31. Basement ceiling needs firestopping around all pipe penetrations.

Firestopping prevents a fire from spreading to different parts of the structure. Firestopping is required at all openings around vents, pipes, ducts, chimneys and fireplaces at ceiling and floor levels, with noncombustible materials. (1995 CABO 1 & 2 Family Dwelling Code, Section 602.7)

32. Doors and windows are missing shims and anchors along the jambs.

All doors and windows need shimming along the jambs (sides) and proper anchorage for a proper installation. (1995 CABO 1 & 2 Family Dwelling Code, Section 108.1)

33. Bedroom windows not large enough to be used for an emergency exit.

Each bedroom shall have an operable window with a sill height no more than 44″ above the floor. Minimum clear height of 22″ or minimum width of 20″. The net clear opening shall be 4 square feet. (1995 CABO 1 & 2 Family Dwelling Code, Section 310.2)

34. Fireplace has wood trim within too close to the opening.

Wood too close to the opening is a fire hazard and could catch fire. Woodwork or other combustible materials shall not be placed within 6 inches of a fireplace opening. Combustible material within 12 inches of the fireplace opening shall not project more than1/8 inch for each 1 inch distance from such opening. (1995 CABO 1 & 2 Family Dwelling Code, Section 1003.10)

35. Fireplace gas starter valve is not accessible while lighting the starter.

This allows a dangerous build up of gas before being able to light the burner. Fireplace gas starters must be within 4′ of the valve. (1995 CABO 1 & 2 Family Dwelling Code, Section 2606.4)

36. Step heights or tread depths are not the proper size.

These are potential trip hazards. The maximum allowable step height is 7 3/4″. The minimum allowed depth of the tread is 9″. (1995 CABO 1 & 2 Family Dwelling Code, Section 314.2)

37. Step heights or tread widths vary in a flight of stairs.

The different step heights or widths could be a trip hazard. Risers (heights) and treads (widths) may not vary more than 3/8″. (1995 CABO 1 & 2 Family Dwelling Code, Section 314.2)

38. Stair tread nosing or overhang extends too far over the step below.

The edge of the steps could break with the grain of the wood allowing someone to fall down the stairs. The maximum allowable overhang is 1 1/4″. (1995 CABO 1 & 2 Family Dwelling Code, Section 314.2.1)

39. Top basement step is not deep enough.

Sometimes the oak flooring overhangs the top tread too far. This is a potential trip hazard. The minimum allowed depth of the tread is 9″. (314.2). The maximum allowable projection or nosing is 1 1/4″. (1995 CABO 1 & 2 Family Dwelling Code, Section 314.2.1)

40. Stairs are missing a 36″ deep landing at the bottom of the stairs between the bottom step and the door.

Any flight of stairs that are used for an emergency exit must have a landing at the bottom before opening a door. A minimum of 3 foot landing shall be required on each side of an egress door. (1995 CABO 1 & 2 Family Dwelling Code, Section 312.1)

41. Door to the basement is missing a door sweep and weather-stripping.

Unconditioned air can enter the conditioned space. Any opening from a conditioned space to a non-conditioned space must be weather-stripped or sealed. (1995 CABO Model Energy Code 502.3 & 602.3)

42. Basement ceiling height is too low.

Basement ceiling ducts are too low and will prevent installing a ceiling at the proper height. Habitable rooms shall have a ceiling height of not less than 7 feet 6 inches. Furred areas shall have a ceiling height of not less than 7 feet. (1995 CABO 1 & 2 Family Dwelling Code, Section 305.1)

43. Garage floor does not slope enough to prevent liquids from running under the walls.

Flammable liquids could run under the walls into the structure and be ignited by the basement furnace or water heater. That area of floor used for parking of automobiles or other vehicles shall be sloped to facilitate the movement of liquids to a drain or toward the main vehicle entry doorway. (1995 CABO 1 & 2 Family Dwelling Code, Section 309.3)

44. Garage furnace and water heater gas piping is not protected from possible impact.

An automobile could hit the piping and cause a gas leak. The pipe must be protected from possible impact. (2000 Standard Gas Code 305.4)

45. Ground fault circuit interrupter electrical outlet is missing at a wet location.

Any electrical outlet located in the bathrooms, kitchen counter area, unfinished basement, garage or on the exterior of the structure that can be reached from the ground, must be GFCI protected. (1999 NEC 210-8(6))

46. Ground fault circuit interrupter electrical outlet is missing at a sink.

Any electrical outlet located within 6 feet of a sink or basin must be GFCI protected. (1999 NEC 210-8(b))

47. No heating and air conditioning damper system present to balance the heating and air conditioning.

A two story structure with a single heat and air conditioning system, will find it difficult to balance the heat and cooling. A readily accessible manual or automatic damper system shall be provided to partially restrict or shut off the heating and/or cooling input to each zone or floor. (1995 CABO Model Energy Code 503.6.3.13 & 603.3.2.1)

48. Furnace ductwork not proper sealed to prevent air leakage in nonconditioned areas.

Sometimes the duct insulation is sealed, but the actual ducts are not sealed. All ducts must be sealed at the furnace and at the register boots. All joints shall be securely fastened and sealed with welds, gaskets, mastic adhesives, mastic-plus-embedded-fabric systems or tapes. (1995 CABO 1 & 2 Family Dwelling Code, Section 1901.3.2) (1994 Standard Mechanical Code 605.1)(2000 Standard Mechanical Code 603.8). Duct tape is not permitted as a sealant on any ducts. (1996 CABO Model Energy Code Sect. 503.8.2, 603.4)

49. Attic furnace does not have the required working platform in front of the furnace for servicing.

This makes it difficult to service the unit or change the filter. A working platform, 30″ deep with a clear headroom of 30″ high, is required along the control side of the furnace. (1995 CABO 1 & 2 Family Dwelling Code, Section 1401.5)(1994 Standard Mechanical Code 304.4)(2000 Standard Mechanical Code 306.3)

50. Range is missing anti-tip brackets on the rear feet to prevent tipping over.

All manufacturer's supply anti-tip brackets with all free standing ranges to prevent tipping. A heavy object such as a turkey can be placed on the open door causing the range to tip spilling hot liquids from the burners. (1995 CABO 1 & 2 Family Dwelling Code, Section 108.1)

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People have been attempting to control heat and ventilation since prehistoric times. Over the many centuries, the technology of heating has advanced from simple attempts to keep the body warm to very sophisticated systems. Ventilation has been used for a very long time as well, dating back to the time when royalty was cooled by servants and slaves fanning them using large palm fronds and feathers. Ventilation became important during the Industrial Revolution to protect workers and increase efficiency. Air conditioning is a relatively recent development, and involves many aspects including the control of temperature, humidity and air cleanliness. It wasn't until after 1945 that the use of air conditioning or
simple cooling of the air became widespread. Modern systems of air conditioning have greatly evolved
from the times of simply hanging wet towels across an open window.

Today, air-conditioning systems do not simply cool the air, but they actually condition it by controlling the air's temperature, moisture content, movement and cleanliness.

Heat Fundamentals
There are essentially three ways that heat moves from one area to another. When bodies of unequal temperatures are near each other, heat leaves one body and goes to the other. Heat moves from the hotter body, and the colder body absorbs it. The greater the difference in temperature, the greater the rate of flow of the heat. Heat moves from one body to another by the following ways: radiation; conduction; and convection.

Radiation is the transfer of heat energy by electromagnetic wave motion. Heat is transferred in direct rays. It travels in a straight line from the source to the body. The closer you are to the hot object, the warmer you feel. The intensity of the heat radiated from the object decreases as the distance from the object increases.

You feel cool in a room that has a cold floor, walls and ceiling. The amount of heat loss from your body in that room depends on the relative temperature of the objects in that room. The colder the floor is (relative to the temperature of your feet), the greater the heat loss from your body will be just standing there. If the floor, walls and ceiling of that room are relatively warmer than your body temperature, then heat will be radiated to your body from those objects and surfaces.

Radiant heating in residential buildings includes piping and electrical wiring in floors, walls and ceilings. Radiant heat emits in all directions. Reflective materials are commonly used in a radiant heat-emitting system in order to direct and control where the heat is emitted.

Conduction is the transfer of heat from one molecule to another, or through one substance to another. It is heat that moves from one body to another by direct contact. For example, heat is transferred by conduction from a boiler heat exchanger to the water passing through it. When you touch a suction line of an air conditioner and it feels warm, that's heat energy moving from the warm copper pipe to your cooler hand -- by conduction.

Convection is known by most people from the phrase "heat rises." Convection is the transfer of heat by warming the air next to a hot surface, and then moving that warm air. It's the transfer of heat by the motion of the heated matter itself. The air moves from one place to another, carrying heat along
with it. Since warm air is lighter than the cool air around it, the warm air (or heat) rises.

Warm fluids tend to rise while the surrounding cool fluids fall. This rising and falling tends to form loops -- convective loops -- where warm air rises and cool air falls. Early warm-air gravity furnaces used the principles of convective loops. In a gravity system, the warm air rises and cool air falls, and this is how the gravity warm-air heating system circulated air.

Forced-air furnaces function primarily by convection. Heat is transferred to the air, and the air is circulated throughout the house. Systems that heat water and use radiators and baseboards as their heat-emitting devices use convection, and radiation, to a lesser extent.

A radiator needs air freely moving around it in order for it to be effective. Covers over radiators might reduce the airflow around and through the radiator unit.

There are four heat-conveying mediums that can carry heat:

* air
* water
* steam
* electricity

Four Types of Heating Systems;

* warm-air heating system;
* hydronic heating system;
* steam heating system; and
* electric heating system.

Heating Fuels that are being used today by most heating systems
fuel oil (No. 2) { Up north}
natural gas;
propane;
coal{up north}
electricity

Natural Gas Teflon tape is not recommended.Pipe dope is preferred. Most jurisdictions do not allow the use of gas piping as a way to ground the electrical service. We do not want to rely on the gas piping as the primary means of grounding the electrical service. Bonding the gas pipes to the electrical grounding system is a requirement in most jurisdictions. This bonding is usually done by connecting the gas piping to the water supply piping that is near the water heater. This is assuming that the water pipes are grounded.

Natural gas has no color, no odor, and it's not toxic. It is highly combustible. It only smells because we put a scent in it. Natural gas has a specific gravity of about 0.6. Air has a specific gravity of 1. Natural gas is lighter than air. Propane has a specific gravity of 1.5, and a propane leak tends to pool on the floor surface and creates a dangerous situation.

To ignite natural gas, you need a mixture of gas and air that is conducive to ignition. If you have too little air in the mix, the gas will not ignite.If you have too much air, the gas will not ignite. You have to have between about 86% air to 94% of air mixed with a certain gas volume to get the gas to ignite. Once ignited, the ignition temperature of natural gas is about 1,200° F. That's hot.

In a conventional gas furnace with a natural draft, air is mixed with the gas initially for combustion. This air is called the primary air.Primary air is controlled by the air shutters at the front of the burner assembly.

The remainder of the air mixture comes from the air that actually surrounds the flames inside the combustion chamber.This air is called the secondary air. The secondary air (the air around the flames) and the primary air (the air drawn into the burners) combine to make up the total combustion air.

Combustion Fundamentals

Combustion involves the burning of a fuel that produces heat energy.Combustion requires adequate supply of air called combustion air. To have a successful combustion process, there has to be a fuel, oxygen, and an ignition source.

Burning a natural gas can be explained by the general equation:CH4 + 2O2 = CO2 + 2H2O + heat.

Natural gas is about 85 to 90% methane (CH4). Burning natural gas (CH4) with oxygen yields carbon dioxide (CO2) and water vapor (2H2O) and heat. This is referred to as complete combustion.

In reality, air is the source of oxygen (O2), and in the air, oxygen is mixed with some nitrogen.The resultant flue gas from the combustion will contain some nitrogen.

Combustion Air
Combustion is never complete (or perfect).In combustion exhaust gases, both unburned carbon (as soot) and carbon compounds (CO and others) will be present.Also, because air is the oxidant, some nitrogen will be oxidized into various nitrogen oxides (NOX).

Roughly 15 cubic feet of air is needed to burn 1 cubic foot of natural gas.Gas furnaces need also draft air (or dilution air) to maintain a draft of the combustion gases.Another 15 cubic feet of air is needed for every cubic foot of natural gas.This air helps with a chimney draft.Therefore, a conventional low-efficiency, standing-pilot gas furnace requires about 30 cubic feet of air (15 dilution plus 15 combustion) for every cubic foot of gas burned. If combustion air is inadequately supplied to a gas furnace, carbon monoxide will likely be produced. Carbon monoxide can be lethal.

Draft Types There are three types of burners relative to the draft.They are:

A) Natural-draft burners
Natural draft refers to the burners of a conventional low-efficiency gas furnace.This type of burner is also called an atmospheric burner.
With natural draft, we need to keep the chimney hot enough to get those combustion gases out of the chimney.Natural draft burners have no draft fan.

B) forced-draft burners
A forced draft is when the furnace has a fan that blows air into the combustion chamber through the heat exchanger and out through the venting system.
All oil burners and some gas furnaces use forced draft.Forced draft has the fan before the burner.

C) Induced-draft burners
An induced draft uses a blower fan to pull air into the burner through the combustion chamber and exchanger.The fan is located on the exhaust-side of the exchanger. It also blows the flue gases out through the vent connector pipe. When the induced fan is operating, there is a negative pressure inside the heat exchanger. Induced-draft fans are also called exhaust blowers or power vents.Induced draft has a fan after the exchanger and before the vent pipe. Induced draft fans are common on mid-efficiency and high-efficiency furnaces.

Backdraft

The lack of dilution air (the air used for draft) may cause a condition of backdraft at the furnace.Backdraft occurs when the combustion gases are not drafting or rising up through the chimney but instead are coming backward into the living area of the building.This is a hazardous situation since carbon monoxide could be entering the dwelling under this condition.

Backdraft could be caused by various conditions,including:inadequate dilution air; flue restriction or blockage; chimney downdraft; exhaust fans causing draft and pressure problems with in the building; and improper chimney or flue connector size.

Confined Space and Combustion Air

If the volume of space in which the appliance is located is less than 50 cubic feet of space per 1,000 BTUs per hour of aggregate input of the appliance, then it is a confined space: 50 cubic feet = 2.5 ft. x 2.5 ft. x 8 ft.

In unconfined spaces in buildings, infiltration may be adequate to provide air for combustion, ventilation and dilution of flue gases.However, in buildings of tight construction (for example, doors and windows that have weatherstripping, walls that are heavily insulated, openings that are caulked, floors and walls with vapor barriers, etc.), additional air may need to be provided.

Solution

Two permanent openings to adjacent spaces could be provided so that the combined volume of all spaces meets the requirements. If the building is sealed so tightly that infiltration air is not adequate for combustion, combustion air should then be obtained from outdoors.

All Air from Inside the Dwelling

If all combustion air is taken from the inside of the dwelling, then two permanent openings should be installed. One opening should be within 12 inches (305 mm) of the top and one within 12 inches (305 mm) of the bottom of the space. Each opening shall have a free area equal to a minimum of 1 square inchper 1,000 BTU/h (2,201 mm2/kW) input rating of all appliances installed within the space, but not less than 100 square inches.

All Air from Outdoors

If all combustion air is taken from the outdoor air, then one opening should be within 12 inches of the top and one within 12 inches of the bottom of the space.The openings are permitted to connect to spaces directly communicating with the outdoor air, such as a ventilated crawlspace or ventilated attic space.Each opening should have a free area of at least 1 square inch per 4,000 BTU/per hour (550 mm2/kW) of total input rating of all appliances in the space when using vertical ducts (2,000 BTU/per hour if using horizontal ducts).

Louvers

In calculating the free area of combustion air openings fitted with louvers, metal louvers obstruct about 25% of the opening. Wooden louvers obstruct 75%.